Chicken is one of Americans’ favorite foods: According to the National Chicken Council, people in the U.S. consume over 100 pounds per person each year — almost as much as beef and pork combined. And why not? It’s tasty, it’s versatile, and it’s a good source of lean protein. 

Of course, there are a few negatives to go along with those positives, and a big one is food poisoning: The CDC estimates that 1 in 25 packages of grocery-store chicken is infected with salmonella or other bacteria. Also, if we’re honest, handling raw chicken is just kind of gross. 

I’m a trained chef and former restaurateur, and was also a certified food safety trainer during my time in the business. I’ve handled a lot of chicken over the years, and trained staff to do it as well. So, if you’ve ever wondered whether you’re handling raw chicken correctly, keep reading. 

Keep it Cold

You can usually be confident that the store you buy your chicken from has handled it correctly, so your responsibility begins at checkout. Chicken shouldn’t stay at room temperature for more than two hours, so put it in a cooler or insulated bag after you purchase it and transfer it to the fridge as soon as you get home. You should use it or freeze it within one or two days. 

Pathogens — bacteria like Salmonella that can cause human illness — flourish at temperatures between 40° and 140° Fahrenheit, the so-called danger zone for food safety. The more bacteria in your food, the more likely you’ll get sick, so you really want to limit time in the danger zone. 

Keep Raw Chicken Separate From Other Foods

One of the big issues for chefs and home cooks alike is the risk of cross-contamination. That’s what happens when potentially bacteria-laden juices from the chicken come into contact with anything ready to eat. It can happen directly through a drip, or occur indirectly because something that’s touched the raw chicken — your hand, your knife, a cutting board, or the counter itself — touched other food afterwards. 

You can reduce this risk right at the store by putting your chicken inside a plastic bag to prevent leakage. When you get home, put the chicken on the bottom shelf of your fridge below other foods with a bowl or plate underneath to catch drips. 

Clean, Clean, Clean

Keeping everything scrupulously clean is just as important as physical separation. Wash your counter, cutting board, knife, and hands before you start. The only thing you shouldn’t wash is the chicken itself. Rinsing it won’t remove bacteria; it will just spread them around your kitchen. Seriously, the CDC would love it if you’d stop doing that. 

A few things I get asked a lot in cooking classes are pertinent here. 

Should I wear gloves to handle raw chicken? 

From a food safety standpoint, gloves are neutral. Every time you handle raw chicken, you should either wash your hands or change gloves. So, if touching raw chicken gives you “the ick,” then by all means use them. I usually use disposable vinyl or nitrile gloves like these,  just so I don’t have to wash my hands and dry out my skin. 

Should I use a plastic cutting board or wood? 

That’s a personal choice. Studies have shown that some kinds of wood have naturally antibacterial properties, but plastic can go right into your dishwasher. I use both, but the perk of having multiple low-cost cutting boards is that you can designate them for meat-only, produce-only, and so on. It helps if they’re color-coded, like these ones from Amazon. Plastic cutting boards can be a source of microplastics, though, so if you’re trying to avoid them, opt for a wooden cutting board like this one.

Are soap and water enough to clean up, or do I need to sanitize? 

Plain soap and hot water do most of the heavy lifting for your hands as well as utensils and surfaces (and lots of general-purpose household cleansers sanitize your surfaces, too). If you want to be really sure, you can make a DIY sanitizer by mixing 1 teaspoon of bleach in 1 cup of room-temperature water. Spray it on your freshly-cleaned utensils and surfaces, let it sit for one minute, then wipe it dry with a clean towel. This kind of sanitizer is only good for 24 hours, so you’ll need to mix it fresh each time. 

Cook Your Chicken to the Right Temperature

The final step in handling your raw chicken correctly is fully cooking it to a temperature that kills potentially harmful bacteria. For chicken or poultry, the USDA-recommended temperature is 165 degrees Fahrenheit. Realistically, the only way to know when you reach that temperature is to check the chicken with a thermometer. “When the juices run clear” isn’t a precise test, and often means you’ve overcooked your chicken. 

Then there’s the question of the meat staying pink with bone-in chicken. That’s not a sign it’s undercooked — it’s a chemical reaction involving oxygen-carrying proteins in chicken meat. That pink color is heat-stable, so it won’t change as you keep cooking your bird. 

A fast-acting instant-read thermometer is the only way to know for sure when your chicken is fully cooked. I recommend ThermoWorks’ Thermapen ONE, which is fast, accurate, and reliable. If you’re not prepared to spend that much, the colorful ThermoPop 2 is more affordable but still offers excellent speed and accuracy. Either one will help you cook your chicken confidently to the correct temperature.

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The next time you grab something from your freezer to make a quick weeknight meal, take a moment to thank Clarence Birdseye. Inspired by the Inuit he saw in Canada’s north as a young scientist, he developed a process to flash-freeze fish commercially and founded the company that still bears his name a century later. 

Commercially blast-frozen fish retains its fresh flavor remarkably well, especially if it’s vacuum-packed to prevent exposure to oxygen. But you should be careful how you thaw it, because in this case, what you don’t know actually can hurt you. 

Fish Are Especially Perishable

Fish and shellfish were an obvious use-case for freezing once the technology developed, because they’re highly perishable — much more so than red meat. They’re good for only a day or two in the fridge at best, and they’ll go “off” after just a couple of hours in the summer heat. Blast-freezing on a boat, or in a plant as soon as they make it to shore, captures their fresh quality and stops deterioration.

That perishability carries over to when you thaw them as well. The USDA endorses three thawing options for food, each with advantages and disadvantages. While overnight in the fridge is your best option — it’s the gentlest and the fish never gets above a food-safe temperature — the downside is that it takes the longest and starts the meter on that two-day refrigerator life. 

Thawing in cold water is faster, but it means you’ll need to cook the fish as soon as it’s thawed. Microwave thawing fish is also OK but tricky, because fish is especially delicate, and thin fillets can go from defrosting to cooking in the blink of an eye. It’s always best to stop the microwave while they’re still partly frozen, but pliable rather than rock-hard. 

You should never thaw on the counter or in hot water, because that turbocharges the growth of any bacteria that happen to be in the fish. If they’re the kind of bacteria that cause spoilage, the fish won’t taste or smell fresh — and if they’re pathogens, you could get sick. 

Vacuum-Sealed Fish Poses a Special Threat

Foods always last longer, and hold their quality better, if they’re vacuum-sealed after freezing. That’s because the vacuum-sealing process extracts almost all air from the packaging, and oxygen with it. That’s mostly a good thing: Oxygen reacts with the food, causing freezer burn and “off” flavors. But there are some bacteria that have evolved to thrive in oxygen-free, or anaerobic, environments, and one of them is Clostridium botulinum. It causes botulism, which is a rare but extremely dangerous form of food poisoning with a high fatality rate.

You might think of botulism mostly as a risk of canned foods, but vacuum packaging is also susceptible to it. This is more of a threat with fish than red meat, not only because you’re more likely to buy your fish vacuum-sealed, but because C. botulinum can naturally be found in the gills and guts of fish and shellfish, and therefore has a higher chance of making it into the fillet you need to defrost. So, while all three of the thawing methods are applicable to ordinary frozen or vacuum-sealed fish, the vacuum-sealed version requires an extra step.

The best defense against botulism is simply air. When you pull a package of vacuum-sealed fish from the freezer, open the packaging and transfer it to a new bag. Exposure to oxygen will kill the bacteria.

A Few Other Things To Know 

Botulism isn’t the only risk associated with fish. Listeria monocytogenes is another nasty one: As FDA’s Bad Bug Book points out, it can survive in both aerobic and anaerobic environments. It’s also salt-tolerant, so it can survive in cured meats and fish (you may recall it was the culprit in the massive 2024 Boar’s Head recalls). And, unlike most bacteria, it can continue to reproduce at refrigerator temperatures. According to the CDC, Listeria kills an average of 172 people a year in the U.S., from about 1,250 cases. Cooking to a temperature of 165 degrees Fahrenheit will kill it, though that’s higher than you’d ideally cook fish. As with soft egg yolks and rare beef, you’ll need to judge risk versus reward for yourself. 

A few other pathogens show up in various forms of fish or seafood, but unlike C. botulinum, they don’t demand any extra steps. As long as you follow the basic rules of handling seafood safely, you should be OK. 

One final thing to remember about fish is that with a few exceptions such as fresh tuna or swordfish, it’s physically more delicate than meat. That’s especially important to have in mind when you’re microwave thawing, because portions that edge from thawed to cooked will be fragile and tend to fall apart when they’re handled. The best approach might be simply to cook from frozen. It stretches your cooking time by up to 50%, but it’s a surefire way to avoid any issues with improper thawing.  

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With Cinco de Mayo drawing near, it’s possible you’re making plans to have a margarita or two (or more). You may even have decided to whip them up yourself — with fresh lime juice, of course, which tends to taste better in cocktails than the bottled stuff. 

But before you start squeezing those limes, there’s something you should know: Lime juice and the sun don’t mix. In fact, combining them could lead to an unsightly and sometimes painful condition called “phytophotodermatitis,” also known as “margarita burn.”  

What Is Phytophotodermatitis?

Phytophotodermatitis is a phototoxic reaction caused when chemicals in plants called furocoumarins are exposed to ultraviolet A (UVA) radiation from the sun. “Then, DNA damage occurs, which causes light sensitivity, blisters, and hyperpigmentation,” says Dr. Samantha Schneider, a double board-certified dermatologist and Mohs micrographic surgeon at Pacific Crest Dermatology in Carson City, Nevada. “It can occur in anyone who is exposed to a plant with these chemicals and UVA radiation — meaning it is not an allergic reaction.” 

Limes are a leading culprit of phytophotodermatitis, but they’re not the only plant that can lead to the condition. Other citrus fruits like lemons and oranges can cause it, as will plants like parsley, dill, figs, fennel, and carrots (among others). According to Dr. Schneider, the natural oil of bergamot found in candles and perfumes was also once a cause of phytophotodermatitis, but “companies have shifted to an artificial oil of bergamot in perfumes to avoid this exact reaction.” 

What Does It Look Like — And Who Can Get It?

Margarita burn doesn’t show up until a day or two after exposure. “Phytophotodermatitis often starts with redness,” Dr. Schneider says. “Then blisters appear about a day later, which turn to maroon to brown dyspigmentation in the area of the rash over the next week or two.” While the uncomfortable part of the rash lasts for up to a week, Schneider says that “the dark discoloration can last for weeks and sometimes even months.”

And unlike a sunburn, which is typically uniform over large parts of the body, phytophotodermatitis will appear in strange shapes caused by the way you were exposed. It’s typically seen on the hands, followed by the arms and legs, and “it often looks like liquid that went running down an arm in streaks, or, if squeezing the lime led to droplets scattering, you can have little circles scattered on the hands and arms,” Dr. Schneider says. “If you stick the citrus in your mouth while outside, you can get involvement around the mouth. Depending on the exposure, you can have a large reaction.” 

Phytophotodermatitis isn’t contagious, but if you squeeze a bunch of limes and then touch someone’s arm, the juice can transfer, and that person might get a rash as well. 

According to Schneider, “one person is not more likely to get it than another as long as the ingredients are there,” but there are some activities that put you more at risk: if you work in a restaurant and prep fruits and veggies, or if you’re outdoors often (gardening or hiking, for example) in environments where you could brush up against plants containing furocoumarins. 

“I tend to see this in the spring as people are going on spring break, in the summer as people are enjoying citrus in the sun, and around the winter holidays when people are vacationing in warm, sunny locations,” Schneider says. “I have also seen this in bartenders when the spring/summer patios open and those margarita orders start rolling in.” 

How To Treat It

Most cases of margarita burn can be treated at home with aspirin and ibuprofen, cool soaks and compresses, and topical creams you can get at the drugstore. Just make sure not to pop any of the blisters, which could lead to an infection. 

If your reaction isn’t getting better after a few days, if it’s over large parts of your body, or if the blisters are large and uncomfortable, you should head to a doctor. “Seeing a dermatologist is very helpful as there are prescription medications that can help relieve symptoms,” Dr. Schneider says. 

To help with future discoloration, Dr. Schneider says it’s important to wear sunscreen and UPF clothing “and generally [follow] good sun protective habits. Whenever you have discoloration, like redness or darkness, left after a rash, sun exposure causes that skin to discolor faster than the normal skin. This ultimately slows down the fading of the rash.”

How To Prevent Phytophotodermatitis

According to Dr. Schneider, preventing phytophotodermatitis is simple: “Be mindful about exposures to these culprit plants while outdoors,” she says. “This doesn’t mean that you can’t have a fun drink, but if you get citrus juice on your skin, make sure to wash with soap and water right away.” 

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Alcohol-based hand sanitizer is a quick and convenient way to reduce germs while on the go, but it isn’t always the best option. Knowing when to skip it in favor of proper handwashing can make a big difference in your overall health. Here are five times you should avoid reaching for the hand sanitizer.

Helpful tip: When hand sanitizer is appropriate, choose a formula with an alcohol concentration between 60% and 95%. Any lower and it may not be effective.

After Handling Chemicals

Pesticides and cleaning products can leave harmful residue on our hands, and using hand sanitizer may not neutralize that residue. According to the CDC, one study found that people who had used hand sanitizer to clean up after applying pesticides had increased levels of pesticides in their bodies. Hand sanitizer also won’t remove heavy metals like lead.

You should also never mix hand sanitizer, which has a high alcohol content, with cleaning products. Combining bleach and alcohol, for example, creates chloroform, which is harmful to humans and could potentially irritate the eyes, skin, and respiratory system. It’s likely that any reaction to bleach and sanitizer on your hands would be small, but it’s better to be safe than sorry. The best way to protect yourself if you’re exposed to any of these chemicals is to use soap and water to remove them.

On Dry, Cracked, or Sensitive Skin

If your skin is dry and cracked, or you have skin issues such as eczema, avoid alcohol-based sanitizers and opt for soap and water instead. Alcohol can worsen cracked skin, leaving you susceptible to more germs, inflammation, and even infection. Instead, the Cleveland Clinic recommends proper handwashing followed by a gentle moisturizer — a thick cream or ointment such as Vaseline — to protect sensitive hands and maintain a natural barrier against infection.

When Your Hands Are Visibly Dirty

If you’ve been gardening, spending time outdoors, or doing hands-on projects, the best way to clean your hands is with soap and water. According to the CDC, hand sanitizer isn’t effective on visibly soiled or greasy hands. While it does kill some germs on the surface of your skin, it doesn’t remove dirt, grease, or residue — or all of the germs that could be lingering within the leftover debris. Washing your hands with soap and warm water breaks down grime and physically washes away contaminants, something sanitizer can’t do.

After Using the Bathroom

Hand sanitizer can kill some types of bacteria and viruses, but it’s not as effective against germs such as Clostridium difficile, cryptosporidium, and norovirus — all of which lurk on surfaces in public restrooms (and elsewhere). Soap and warm water are far more effective at physically removing these germs from your hands rather than just trying to neutralize them. Also, many people don’t use enough sanitizer or rub it in long enough for it to work properly. If soap isn’t available in the restroom, the CDC recommends applying enough hand sanitizer to cover all surfaces of your hands (even the back) and rubbing it in until dry.

While Preparing Food

If you’re preparing foods that commonly harbor pathogens that cause foodborne illness — such as raw meat, eggs, or seafood — skip the sanitizer and wash your hands instead. Sanitizer alone cannot penetrate food debris left on your hands to completely remove dangerous foodborne bacteria such as Salmonella and E. coli. To avoid dangerous cross-contamination, wash your hands in warm, soapy water for at least 20 seconds after touching raw foods. This removes stubborn grease and pathogens simultaneously, ensuring a safe cooking environment.

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The internet is filled with ads for blue-light-blocking glasses whose manufacturers claim all kinds of health benefits. Many promise to “defend your eyes” from “potentially pesky” blue light without specifying why your peepers might need defending. Some say wearing the glasses “[boosts] evening melatonin production” and helps regulate your circadian rhythms for better sleep. Others claim to absorb blue light from digital devices to relieve eye strain and fatigue or even help prevent eye diseases.

Should you believe the hype? Or are blue-light blockers just smoke and mirrors? Here’s what the science says.

Blue-Light Basics

Blue light is a short, high-energy wavelength of light that comprises about one-third of all visible light in our atmosphere. The sun is our main source, but it also shines from light-emitting diodes (LEDs), the mechanisms that backlight smartphones, laptops, tablets, and TVs. While exposure to blue light does boost your energy and wakefulness by regulating your internal circadian rhythm, too much blue light can disrupt sleep by suppressing your brain’s production of melatonin. Extremely high doses of blue light in the environment can even damage the eye’s retina and contribute to cataracts and macular degeneration.

Our eyes are not great at blocking blue light on their own. But with many teens and adults spending hours every day looking at screens, and likely experiencing some degree of eye fatigue from that activity, blue-light-blocking glasses have emerged as a potential solution. These glasses often have a special coating or amber lenses meant to prevent some of the blue wavelength of light from penetrating your eyes. 

Shedding Light on Eye Health

A few randomized, controlled trials have found that wearing blue-light-blocking glasses before bedtime had some positive effects on sleep quality, but these trials were small and used self-reported data. A 2023 meta-analysis of 17 randomized clinical trials revealed little evidence that the glasses relieved eye fatigue from screen use and no consensus on whether the glasses improved sleep.

As for eye comfort, screen-related eye strain and blurred vision usually come from forgetting to blink while looking at your phone or computer — not from the blue light emanating from the device, according to the American Academy of Ophthalmology. A better solution for scrolling fatigue is to keep your screens an arm’s length from your eyes and take “20-20-20” breaks: Shift your gaze to an object 20 feet away for 20 seconds every 20 minutes. Rewetting drops can also keep your corneas comfortable.

The Bottom Line

While long-term exposure to ambient blue light may cause eye problems, there is no evidence that the amount of light put out by digital devices, including blue light, causes any eye disease. In fact, the amount of blue light in Earth’s atmosphere, which you’re exposed to every day, is much higher than the amount emitted from your smartphone, computer, or TV. 

UVA and UVB radiation, which also emanate from the sun, pose a bigger risk to eye health than blue light does. Long-term exposure to UVA/UVB can cause cataracts, macular degeneration, and eye cancer. Because of that well-established risk, the most effective glasses for eye protection are probably not blue blockers with iffy health claims, but a pair of sunglasses with a 100% UV protection rating.

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